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HISTOKY OF DENTAL SUKGEEY 19

prnoticcd at least iiiiic Inimlri'il 30ars ago. He also described scaling or scrap-
ing instrnments. Artificial teeth carved out of bullock's bones were made
by him and fastened in place liy means of gold wire. Filing the teeth is
fully described by him as a newer operation in dentistry.
As the Saracens had superseded Greek and Roman, so in their turn came
llie Turk to destroy and succeed them. The middle of the thirteenth cen-
tury established the supremacy of the (Ottoman Empire and Palestine was made
!' possession of the Tui'k.
This led to the wars of the crusades, waged for the purpose of restoring
the Holy Land to tlic jiossession of the Christians.
These wars, like many others in the world's progress, brought in their
trail results not intended or contemplated at their outset. The Holy Sepulchre
i-nd the Holy Land were not restored to tlie dominion of Christian nations
and Christian knights, but tlie soldiers wdio returned to their homes in western
and northern Europe carried thither much information upon the knowledge
and the arts of the east. Medical practice during these days had been almost
entirely monopolized by the monks and friars among the Cliristians. Tlie
.lews during the last part of .\rabian ascendency were the travelers in distant
lands and looked after mind, body and estates of their neighbors. As a result
surgery at this period had retrograded almost to its incipiency of the days
of the early Greeks, and was confined to very narrow limits.
A\niatever was practiced in' this respect was left to the hands of "farriers,
barbers and swinegelders." So far as military surgery was concerned, the days
of Aesculapius seem to have returned, and the wounded hero might either ex-
tract the foenum's dart himself oi- let the dexterous hand of Ins lady love per-
form the deed.

AWAKENING OF WESTERN EUROPE AFTER THE CRUSADES.
The cliange of ('onstantino])le from Roman control to that of the Turk,
in 145(1, icsultid in the expatriation from their native land of many Greeks
of great learning, wlm fled to tlio west and became teachers of their arts and
sciences, and laid the foundation for the development of a new civilization in
Europe. The I'niversities of Italy and Spain, of Paris and of Oxford, began
to secure professors of worth and tlic fifteenth century made I'apid strides for-
ward. Fallopia, Eustachi and many others made real discoveries in anatomv
and corrected the errors of former teachers. A new era of original research
was iLshcred in and it became necessary to specialize, and oculists, aurists, den-